18th century guitar prerformance practice Essay

18th century guitar prerformance practice - Essay Example There is a common conception among that guitar is an essentially 20th century instrument and the use of guitar in western music has commenced after late 19th century.They also have developed an idea that usage of guitar, as a universal musical instrument has started with the evolution of jazz, blues and rock genre of music. Unfortunately, these ideas are quite wrong. Looking at the history of guitar in western musical scenario, we see that musicians started to use guitar in their musical compositions since 16th century. Guitar is actually a Spanish musical instrument and since its adoption as a sonorous musical instrument, the European musicians in their compositions used it widely (Kachur, 1993, 252).Guitar is famous for "its own distinguished concert repertory, became the global instrument for people - the only existing instrument, someone once said, on which it is 'impossible to make a nasty noise." (Bainesm, 1992, 134) At the very beginning, Guitar did not look like the today's f igure-of-eight body shape. During the 16th century, guitar was a four-string instrument. It was smaller in size as compared to today's guitars and was mostly used for composition of folk music in places like, Portugal, Latin America and Spain.During the late 17th century and starting of the 18th century, guitars were having five strings and those were comparatively larger in size than their presiding models. However, guitar was a much-loved instrument for the musicians but people continued to experiment on guitars in order to enhance its musical orientation. The five and then six string guitars are results of such experiments. The six string guitars came into use since the 18th century and aftermath musicians started using and incorporating guitar music in a vigorous way in different types of music as well as compositions. Since 16th century to the modern times, there have been introduction of several techniques in the art of guitar playing. The art of guitar playing has reached to the level of culmination in the 20th century due to contribution of several artists but without the guitar, performance practice technique of the 18th century guitar player was never possible in such composite way. However, use of guitar started almost 2 centuries before the adoption of six-string guitar but it did not attract attention of the common people until 18th century. Initially, musicians used the "the strings of gut and over wound silk, and the lower-tuned strings had a core of nylon floss over wound with plated wire," for the purpose of creating music. (Bainesm, 135, 1992) Musicians were also engaged in the quest to produce better sound from the guitars and during the course of their quest, they started using the nylon strings. Nylon stings are still considered as essential aspects for classical guitar playing and this practice came into use since the 18th century. Traditionally there are two types of guitar playing techniques, 1) the Classical guitar playing and 2) the Flamenco style guitar paying. In the classical style guitar playing, the guitar player places the guitar on his left thigh and he places his left leg over the footrest of his sitting stool in such a way that it is raised a bit. The guitar player, as he starts playing the guitar, mainly plucks the guitar stings with his fingernails. Historical references say, "In the 19th century and earlier the flesh of the fingertip was more commonly used, as in lute playing." (Bainesm, 1992, 135) As a guitar player uses his fingers in a better way, the guitar music receives a masterful touch. The left hand fingers of the guitar player are used with the purpose of stopping the string from resonating, so that the required tone is produced and at the same time, he must learn to arch the strings in such ways that the adjacent strings freely vibrate

Biography of Georg Simon Ohm Essay Example for Free

Biography of Georg Simon Ohm Essay Georg Simon Ohm (16 March 1787 – 6 July 1854) was a Bavarian (German) physicist and mathematician. As a high school teacher, Ohm began his research with the new electrochemical cell, invented by Italian scientist Alessandro Volta. Using equipment of his own creation, Ohm found that there is a direct proportionality between the potential difference (voltage) applied across a conductor and the resultant electric current. This relationship is known as Ohms law. Ohm died in Munich in 1854, and is buried in the Alter Sà ¼dfriedhof. Early years Georg Simon Ohm was born into a Protestant family in Erlangen, Bavaria, (then a part of the Holy Roman Empire)son to Johann Wolfgang Ohm, a locksmith and Maria Elizabeth Beck, the daughter of a tailor in Erlangen. Although his parents had not been formally educated, Ohms father was a respected man who had educated himself to a high level and was able to give his sons an excellent education through his own teachings. Of the seven children of the family only three survived to adulthood: Georg Simon, his younger brother Martin, who later became a well-known mathematician, and his sister Elizabeth Barbara. His mother died when he was ten. From early childhood, Georg and Martin were taught by their father who brought them to a high standard in mathematics, physics, chemistry and philosophy. Georg Simon attended Erlangen Gymnasium from age eleven to fifteen where he received little in the area of scientific training, which sharply contrasted with the inspired instruction that both Georg and Martin received from their father. This characteristic made the Ohms bear a resemblance to the Bernoulli family, as noted by Karl Christian von Langsdorf, a professor at the University of Erlangen. Life in university Georg Ohms father, concerned that his son was wasting his educational opportunity, sent Ohm to Switzerland. There in September 1806 Ohm accepted a position as a mathematics teacher in a school in Gottstadt bei Nydau. Karl Christian von Langsdorf left the University of Erlangen in early 1809 to take up a post in the University of Heidelberg and Ohm would have liked to have gone with him to Heidelberg to restart his mathematical studies. Langsdorf, however, advised Ohm to continue with his studies of mathematics on his own, advising Ohm to read the works of Euler, Laplace and Lacroix. Rather reluctantly Ohm took his advice but he left his teaching post in Gottstadt bei Nydau in March 1809 to become a private tutor in Neuchà ¢tel. For two years he carried out his duties as a tutor while he followed Langsdorfs advice and continued his private study of mathematics. Then in April 1811 he returned to the University of Erlangen. His private studies had stood him in good stead for he received a doctorate from Erlangen on 25 October 1811 and immediately joined the staff as a mathematics lecturer. After three semesters Ohm gave up his university post. He could not see how he could attain a better status at Erlangen as prospects there were poor while he essentially lived in poverty in the lecturing post. The Bavarian government offered him a post as a teacher of mathematics and physics at a poor quality school in Bamberg and he took up the post there in January 1813. This was not the successful career envisaged by Ohm and he decided that he would have to show that he was worth much more than a teacher in a poor school. He worked on writing an elementary book on the teaching of geometry while remaining desperately unhappy in his job. After Ohm had endured the school for three years it was closed down in February 1816. The Bavarian government then sent him to an overcrowded school in Bamberg to help out with the mathematics teaching. On 11 September 1817 Ohm received an offer of the post of teacher of mathematics and physics at the Jesuit Gymnasium of Cologne. This was a better school than any that Ohm had taught in previously and it had a well equipped physics laboratory. As he had done for so much of his life, Ohm continued his private studies reading the texts of the leading French mathematicians Lagrange, Legendre, Laplace, Biot and Poisson. He moved on to reading the works of Fourier and Fresnel and he began his own experimental work in the school physics laboratory after he had learnt of Oersteds discovery of electromagnetism in 1820. At first his experiments were conducted for his own educational benefit as were the private studies he made of the works of the leading mathematicians. The Jesuit Gymnasium of Cologne failed to continue to keep up the high standards that it had when Ohm began to work there so, by 1825, he decided that he would try again to attain the job he really wanted, namely a post in a university. Realising that the way into such a post would have to be through research publications, he changed his attitude towards the experimental work he was undertaking and began to systematically work towards the publication of his results [1]:- Overburdened with students, finding little appreciation for his conscientious efforts, and realising that he would never marry, he turned to science both to prove himself to the world and to have something solid on which to base his petition for a position in a more stimulating environment. In fact he had already convinced himself of the truth of what we call today Ohms law namely the relationship that the current through most materials is directly proportional to the potential difference applied across the material. The result was not contained in Ohms firsts paper published in 1825, however, for this paper examines the decrease in the electromagnetic force produced by a wire as the length of the wire increased. The paper deduced mathematical relationships based purely on the experimental evidence that Ohm had tabulated. In two important papers in 1826, Ohm gave a mathematical description of conduction in circuits modelled on Fouriers study of heat conduction. These papers continue Ohms deduction of results from experimental evidence and, particularly in the second, he was able to propose laws which went a long way to explaining results of others working on galvanic electricity. The second paper certainly is the first step in a comprehensive theory which Ohm was able to give in his famous book published in the following year. Teaching career Ohms own studies prepared him for his doctorate which he received from the University of Erlangen on October 25, 1811. He immediately joined the faculty there as a lecturer in mathematics but left after three semesters because of unpromising prospects. He could not survive on his salary as a lecturer. The Bavarian government offered him a post as a teacher of mathematics and physics at a poor quality school in Bamberg which Ohm accepted in January 1813. Unhappy with his job, Georg began writing an elementary textbook on geometry as a way to prove his abilities. Ohms high school was closed down in February 1816. The Bavarian government then sent him to an overcrowded school in Bamberg to help out with the teaching of mathematics. Memorial for Ohm at the Technical University of Munich, Campus Theresienstrasse After his assignment in Bamberg, Ohm sent his completed manuscript to King Wilhelm III of Prussia. The King was satisfied with Ohms book, and offered Ohm a position at the Jesuit Gymnasium of Cologne on 11 September 1817. This school had a reputation for good science education and Ohm was required to teach physics in addition to mathematics. The physics laboratory was well-equipped, allowing Ohm to begin experiments in physics. As the son of a locksmith, Ohm had some practical experience with mechanical devices. Ohm published Die galvanishe Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet (The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically) in 1827. Ohms college did not appreciate his work and Ohm resigned from his position. He then made an application to, and was employed by, the Polytechnic School of Nuremberg. Ohm arrived at the Polytechnic School of Nuremberg in 1833, and in 1852 he became a professor of experimental phy sics at the University of Munich. The discovery of Ohms law Further information: Ohms Law Ohms law first appeared in the famous book Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet (tr., The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically) (1827) in which he gave his complete theory of electricity. In this work, he stated his law for electromotive force acting between the extremities of any part of a circuit is the product of the strength of the current, and the resistance of that part of the circuit. The book begins with the mathematical background necessary for an understanding of the rest of the work. While his work greatly influenced the theory and applications of current electricity, it was coldly received at that time. It is interesting that Ohm presents his theory as one of contiguous action, a theory which opposed the concept of action at a distance. Ohm believed that the communication of electricity occurred between contiguous particles which is the term Ohm himself used. The paper is concerned with this idea, and in particular with illustrating the differences in this scientific approach of Ohms and the approaches of Joseph Fourier and Claude-Louis Navier. A detailed study of the conceptual framework used by Ohm in producing Ohms law has been presented by Archibald. The work of Ohm marked the early beginning of the subject of circuit theory, although this did not become an important field until the end of the century. Ohms acoustic law Further information: Ohms acoustic law Ohms acoustic law, sometimes called the acoustic phase law or simply Ohms law, states that a musical sound is perceived by the ear as a set of a number of constituent pure harmonic tones. It is well known to be not quite true. WORKS * Guidelines for an appropriate treatment of geometry in higher education at preparatory institutes / notes * The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically * Elements of analytic geometry concerning the skew coordinate system * Fundamentals of physics: Compendium of lectures

Haitian Culture: Death and Dying

Haitian Culture: Death and Dying From one of the poorest countries in the world comes one of the most complex and varied religions. Although very different from much of the world, Haitian customs regarding end of life, funeral practices, the dead and the practice of Voodoo has evolved throughout the past several centuries. From the very beginnings of the Island to the present the Haitian people have practiced their own variance of religion unlike any other place in the world. I have been to Haiti many times with my church and find it absolutely heartbreaking. Poverty and lack of any significant healthcare system aided and fueled by a corrupt government begets one of most broken societies in the western world. The last time I was there was the first time in recent history that Voodoo wasnt the national religion. Haiti has always claimed Roman Catholicism officially but until very recently most Haitians practiced voodoo alongside it with no sense of contrast between the two. Although the culture is split between Christianity and Voodoo, most churches dont turn people away who need care if they can provide it. By the same token, those who practice Voodoo do not shy away from health centers in favor of only being treated by the Voodoo priest or witch doctor. However, most hospitals are in the city so for rural Haitians seeing a voodoo healer is the only option. While in our compound in Borel (a rural town about 100 miles north of Port a prince) I could hear the drums of the voodoo ceremonies from beyond our walls, and more than once have seen the Christian funeral processions in the streets. I remember watching the vigils of the folks sitting in the cemeteries and asking my interpreter guide about what was going on at night and about the rituals and about how and why they worked the way they do. In order to accomplish this we must first do our best to understand a little of how Haiti came to exist Haiti is best known to be discovered by Christopher Columbus, but there were many cultures that inhabited the land before his arrival in 1492. The first known settlers were the Ciboneys, who migrated from what is now known as North America in 450 A.D. Then in 900 A.D., the Tainos, who belonged to the Arawak nation, settled in large villages. The Arawak Indians called the land Ayiti, which means land of mountains. Columbus left Spaniards in charge of the land and they became responsible of almost terminating all of the Arawaks This caused the island to be empty for many years until the French colonized the land in the middle of seventeenth century. During Frances reign, Haiti became one of the most prominent countries in the world. Resources such as sugar cane, cotton, cocoa, and coffee became the most important sources to Haitis wealth. These resources became a high demand by European markets and because of the increase in demand, the French needed cheap labor. As other countries did , the French looked towards Africa for slaves and since the slaves were not treated fairly, they soon became Frances downfall. It was during this time that the catholic French began converting the slaves who also held on to their ancient voodoo religion but practiced in secret. Eventually the two became intertwined. The slaves became the most important thing to Haitis economy and future and in the year of 1791, the slaves planned a revolt against the French and became successful. In 1804, the slaves took over Napoleons reign and Haiti became the first independent black nation headed by General Jean-Jacques Dessalines. Dessalines was a poor leader and upon his death the country was split into two, making Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Today, the population is over 5 million and especially after the earthquake is excessively poor and very urbanized. It has constantly struggled economically after winning its independence, has not found an answer to the enormous poverty problems and is highly reliant on aid from other countries. Without a stable government or means of supporting itself Haiti remains at the bottom of economic and political power. The people of Haiti are mainly of African origin and speak either Haitian Creole (a unique dialect of French) or French and are Roman Catholic and Protestant or voodoo worshippers. Voodoo has been the best known feature of Haiti and has gained an image (mostly from Hollywood horror films) of being a country of sorcery and zombies. The religion of voodoo is monotheistic religion in which there a certain classes of spirits and lesser gods all subservient of the one true God. One of the main functions of these lesser gods or Lwa/loah cause or cure illness. Most all of the voodoo ritual is centered upon this one function and is taken as science for most the people of Haiti. Virtually all of the modern medicine practiced in Haiti is centered around the cities and therefore rural Haitians will almost always consult a healer practicing voodoo. The roots of voodoo run deep as does Christianity. None of us would find it strange to find healing through our faith and so it goes for the Haitians. A healer may use such things as putting a knife under a bed to cut pain or tie knot in string to choke out swelling. If the patient suffers from pain he may believe that a spell has been put on him or a curse. If the pain is imagined from the knowledge of someone placing the curse on him the spell to remove it may be just as effe ctive. This where the dolls of the movies come into play. A pin in the head of the doll is meant to relieve the pain not cause it, and a Haitian who believes this process may believe he is healed as a result of the ceremony. Those who practice voodoo do not believe that death is the end of life. Followers of Voodoo believe that each person has a soul and that it contains both the a part of the person and a part of the larger universe When someone dies, the soul stays close to the deceased for seven to nine days. During this time the soul can be captured and used by an evil one and made into a zombie to be enslaved to serve the one who made him. As long as the soul is not captured, a ritual called Nine Night is performed in order to completely release the soul from the body so the soul may live in the dark waters for a period of a year and a day. If this is not done correctly, the soul may have to wander the earth and do harm to others. After three hundred and sixty six days, loved ones of the deceased can initiate the Rite of Reclamation to raise the deceased persons soul essence from the dark waters and put it in a clay jar known as a govi. The clay jar may be placed in a temple or on an altar where the family may come and offer gifts and feed it offer it drink and pay homage to it. and At this time the spirit of the deceased is welcomed to enter a loved one and give them any last words of enlightenment. Sometimes the jar is then broken and the pieces dropped at a crossroads. This completes the purpose of the ritual which is to release the spirit until the final incarnation. In keeping with addressing t The four primary dimensions of coping with dying the physical psychological social and spiritual I will list some other common practices Haitians use in their culture when dealing with those at the end of life. When death is certain, the family will come together and bring with them religious artifacts. They will go to great expense and extremes to be together as it so important to be present if possible at the time of death.. Once they are together they will cry and pray. It is preferable for most Haitians that they die at home surrounded by loved ones. However, hospital deaths are not out of the question. At the moment of death there is ritual wailing and final bath is given. In Haiti the eldest family member takes charge of the funeral arrangements, but the body is kept until everyone can make it home for the funeral. Funerals are extremely signifigant social events and last for several days in which rum is consumed and large amounts of food.during this time family will sleep at the house and friends will stay in the yard. Since most Haitians are reluctant to be buried under ground elaborate multi-chambered tombs are bought which will contain several members or entire families. Since the body must be intact for resurrection at the end of days no organ donations are permitted. Since voodoo lacks any real theology many variations exist. Regional and cultural differences make doing solid research elusive and sparse as what is practiced in one place may or may not be practiced in another. Common beliefs about the afterlife are that there is no reward or punishment there. Spirits can enter or mount a body. At that time the person will not share the same space and becomes possessed by the Loa. Priest both summon and help the spirit leave a body. Drums, dance, and sacrifice are part of all voodoo ritual. In conclusion, Haitians have one of the shortest life expectancies on earth (61 years for adult males), so Haitians are used to living with pain, sickness and death. They are basically a peace loving people seeking hope in a land that that doesnt offer much. Like my own religion and culture the people of Haiti bond by practicing the religion and culture of their parents and ancestors. What some of us find superstitious, exotic and strange when looked at more closely is not so different at all. Practicing religion and doing it as a family and a community brings us closer to an understanding of purpose and meaning whether it is true or not. Without tradition and ritual we have much less in common and much less of a reason to carry on. Purpose to pass on to the next generation keeps going and going strong. Perhaps that is why the modern Haitians continue to exist today.

Understanding Electric Motors :: physics motor electricity

MOTOR BASICS BASIC COMPONENTS * Armature - Sometimes called a rotor. This is the part that spins. The armature can be either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. * Stator - This is the part that doesn't move. The rotor spins in the magnetic field contained in the stator. HOW WORKS A MOTOR? The force that that turns the armature comes from the magnetic field of the armature trying to line up with the external magnetic field of the stator. This force is called torque. This torque will cause the armature to turn until its magnetic field is aligned with the external field, but no further. How does the armature continue to spin? One of the magnetic fields must be changed so that the armature has to turn again. The armature will spin so long as there is always a torque acting on it. How this is accomplished is what sets each type of electric motor apart. DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS SIMPLE DIRECT CURRENT MOTOR In a DC motor, the armature consists of any number of windings, each one an electromagnet. The armature is immersed in a directional external magnetic field. This external field does not move, and can come from permanent magnets or electromagnets. A direct current in a set of windings creates a polar magnetic field. A torque acts on the rotor due to its relation to the external magnetic field. Just as the magnetic field of the rotor becomes fully aligned with the external magnetic field, the direction of the current in the windings on the armature reverses, thereby reversing the polarity of the rotor's electromagnetic field. A torque is once again exerted on the rotor, and it continues spinning. The change in direction of current is facilitated by the split ring commutator. The brushes remain stationary, but they are in contact with the armature at the commutator, which rotates with the armature such that at every 180Â ° of rotation, the current in the armature is reversed. BRUSHLESS DIRECT CURRENT MOTOR A brushless DC motor has a permanent magnet or magnets for the armature. The external magnetic field comes from any number of electromagnets that are turned on and off at the correct times by a timing device. The exact workings of different brushless DC motors depend on the type of timing device used. This example uses a Reed switch.

Maju Jaya Supermarket (MJ Supermarket) Essay

Maju Jaya Supermarket (MJ Supermarket) advertises in the newspapers that there is a vacancy for the post of manager. The advertisement stated that those who are interested can come anytime to MJ Supermarket for an interview from 11th April 2014 until 21st April 2014. Ahmad who was very interested with the post came to MJ Supermarket on 20th April 2014 and was informed by the owner that the post was already filled. Ahmad was very angry as he has already tendered his resignation to his former company. On the day that Ahmad came to the MJ Supermarket, he saw Mr Chan, his neighbour, entering the MJ Supermarket and selected some canned food, shampoo, eggs and vegetables. He put all the items into his trolley. However, while he was still looking for other items, Mr Chan received a call from his son asking him to pick him up from the train station. Mr Chan left the items in the trolley and went out from the MJ Supermarket. Advise Ahmad and Mr Chan whether there is any contract between them and the MJ Supermarket. (20 MARKS) ANSWER to Part A (Ahmad Case) Introduction The definition given under the Section 2(h) of the Contracts Act 1950 is that a contract is an agreement enforceable by law (The Commissioner of Law Revision, 2006). Therefore in the Ahmad’s case, one of the parties (Ahamd or MJ Supermarket) has to make an offer that is duly accepted by the other. Issue First issue that we need address in this case is to see whether the advertisement stating the interview deadlines contains an offer. If it does, can Ahmad’s willingness to attend the interview be considered as an acceptance of the offer? In case the advertisement is not considered as an offer, or if it is just an invitation to treat, then there is no contract between them. Second issue raised by the question is whether Ahmad’s presence in the MJ Supermarket to attend the interview on time, after his resignation from his previous job, is an offer. In that case, does MJ Supermarket can reject Ahmad’s offer? Based on the limited information given in the Ahmad’s case, the issues were analysed to see whether there is a contract between both parties? The Law According to Section 2(a) of the Contracts Act 1950, an offer exists â€Å"when one person signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to the act or abstinence, he is said to make a proposal† (Rahman , 2011). As given in the Carlill v. Carbolic Smoke Ball Co Ltd (1893) 1 QB 256 case, a proposal or an offer can also be made to the general public to be accepted by any person who knows about it and willing to perform the requirements of the proposer. On the other hand, an invitation to treat can be defined as giving information or requests to others to make offers. Application of the Law to the Facts of the Problem The advertisement by the MJ Supermarket clearly states that those who are interested can come anytime to MJ Supermarket for an interview from 11th April 2014 until 21st April 2014. This raise the question whether the advertisement is intended to bound in contract with the participants who come for the interview. In case of COELHO v. THE PUBLIC SERVICES COMMISSION[1964] M.L.J.12, the applicant, a Health Inspector under the Town Board, Tanjong Malim, applied for the post of Assistant Passport Officer in the Federation of Malaya Government Oversea Missions advertised in the Malay Mail dated 19 February 1957. Consequently, the applicant was informed that he was accepted and, after undergoing training, he was posted to the Immigration Office, Kuala Lumpur, where he remained until December 1958 when he was transferred to the Immigration Office at Johor Bahru (Rahman , 2011). The High Court ruled that the newspaper advertisement was an invitation for qualified persons to apply and the applications were treated as offers. Same can be expressed to the case of Ahmad that the newspaper advertisement by the MJ Supermarket is an invitation to those who are interested to participate in the interview. In the case of Gibson v Manchester CC [1979] 1 All ER 972, HL local council write to tenants inviting them to apply to purchase their homes. One such tenant P did apply, and a price was agreed. Following a change of party control, the new council DD refused to go ahead with the sale. The House of Lords said there was no binding contract: P had made an offer which DD had not yet accepted. Phrases in the correspondence such as â€Å"may be prepared to sell† and â€Å"please complete the enclosed application form† were indicative of an invitation to treat (Thomson  Reuters, 2004). Similarly to this case, the advertisement by the MJ supermarket stated th at those who are interested â€Å"can come† any time to the interview is crucial to consider that the advertisement was a step in the negotiation for a contract. Conclusion Considering the court ruling on both Coelho’s case and Gibson’s case, the advertisement made in the newspaper was an â€Å"invitation to treat†. However, the presence of Ahmad to participate in the interview is considered as an offer. The MJ Supermarket rejected this offer. Therefore the advice to Ahmad is that there is no contract between himself and the MJ Supermarket. ANSWER to Part B (Ahmad Case) On the day that Ahmad came to the MJ Supermarket, he saw Mr Chan, his neighbour, entering the MJ Supermarket and selected some canned food, shampoo, eggs and vegetables. He put all the items into his trolley. However, while he was still looking for other items, Mr Chan received a call from his son asking him to pick him up from the train station. Mr Chan left the items in the trolley and went out from the MJ Supermarket. Introduction The definition given under the Section 2(h) of the Contracts Act 1950 is that a contract is an agreement enforceable by law (The Commissioner of Law Revision, 2006). In the case of Chan, there should be an offer made by Chan and this offer should be accepted by the MJ Supermarket to make a contract. Issue The issue raised in the question is whether the Mr Chan’s action of taking goods from super market racks and put it into the basket contains an offer or an acceptance of an offer. Does he or MJ Supermarket fulfil the requirements of a contract? The Law According to Section 2(a) of the Contracts Act 1950, an offer exists â€Å"when one person signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to the act or abstinence, he is said to make a proposal†. An invitation to treat can be  defined as giving information or requests to others to make offers. In the Contracts Act 1950, Section 4(1) states that the â€Å"communication of a proposal is complete when the proposal comes to the knowledge of the person to whom it is made. To fulfil the pre-conditions of a contract, the proposal should be clearly communicated to the acceptor. Under Section 5(1) of the Contracts Act 1950, â€Å"a proposal may be revoked at any time before the communication of its acceptance is complete as against the proposer, but not afterwards. Application of the Law to the Facts of the Problem Mr Chan took goods by himself suggests that there is a display of goods in the MJ Supermarket and allows customers to voluntarily pick goods they like and purchase from the counter. â€Å"In the case of Fisher v Bell [1960] 3 All ER 731, DC it was a statutory offence under the Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1959 to offer for sale any of various items, including flick-knives. A Bristol shopkeeper R displayed such a knife in his window, with a ticket reading â€Å"Ejector knife – 4s.† [4 shillings = 20p], and was prosecuted for an offence under the Act. The Divisional Court took a literal interpretation of the statute and said he had committed no offence: the display was an invitation to treat, not an offer to sell† (Rahman , 2011). In relation to the Mr Chan’s scenario, this case can be used to justify an argument of changing mind at any point of purchase before a contract is made. Therefore Mr Chan’s decision to leave the goods without buying is acceptable based on Fisher’s case. â€Å"In the case of Pharmaceutical Society v Boots [1953] 1 All ER 482, CA certain products that were to be sold only under the supervision of a registered pharmacist were displayed on shelves in a self-service shop. The Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain (who are responsible for enforcing this legislation) brought a prosecution against the shop for allowing customers to buy these products by helping themselves, but the Court of Appeal (upholding Lord Goddard CJ) said they had no case. The customer having selected the goods made an offer to purchase when he took them to the cash desk, and there was a registered pharmacist supervising that point at which the sale took place† (Rahman , 2011). Mr Chan does not take the goods  to the sales counter. In the case it is also mentioned that he was still looking for goods to purchase. However, he revoked from the process of making an offer to the sales staff when he got a phone call. As mentioned in the Boots case, the action by Mr Chan indicates that he did not properly complete an offer to purchase. In other words, he was involved in an invitation to treat from the MJ Supermarket. Conclusion To complete a contract between Mr Chan and MJ Supermarket, there is should clear communication of an offer and acceptance between both parties. Based on the discussed cases above, the display of goods are considered as an invitation to treat. Mr Chan does not complete an offer to purchase the goods as he quit his process of purchasing in the middle before taking goods to the sales counter. Futhermore, the MJ Supermarket does not have knowledge of a possible offer from Mr Chan.

Is Our Political Process Fair

Is Our Political Process Fair Many people would argue that the American political process is unfair, but they would say that for different reasons. Some people would say that the American political process does not accurately reflect the will of the people and that this is unfair. Other people would argue that it is not feasible for this to be the case and that certain people deserve more influence in American politics because of their greater contribution to society or because they are more qualified for the job. These two sides have been in conflict since the early days of the American political process. Pure Democracy The representative democracy of the United States does render the opinions of individual voters relatively unimportant. While voters and their votes do matter and candidates spend millions of dollars trying to sway the opinions of voters, many individual voters are frustrated with the fact that it barely seems to make a difference whether they vote or not and the  voting seems to be a matter of principle.However, the fact that every voter is in the same situation does seem to make the process fair in its own way. People have been arguing since the beginning that American democracy has to be representative. Pure democracy with no representatives is very rare when the voting public has hundreds of millions of people. It usually only works in much smaller societies. While some people would argue that this does not mean the situation is fair, they might still make a case for the system in a pragmatic sense. Democracy requires an educated middle class to be sustainable, or people will often vote for the very same individuals that democracies seek to eliminate. You may also like these articles: The Value of Academic Debate Womens Right to Education Combining Academic Knowledge and Practicality Torture Is Never Justified Is High IQ a Guarantee to Academic Success? In Principle and In Practice It should be noted that a lot of Americans functionally never vote for reasons beyond their control. Even getting to the polling booths or getting absentee ballots is tough in some areas, which is genuine discrimination against poorer people and people who live in certain regions. Disabled individuals often find it difficult to vote for various reasons, so their voice gets excluded from American politics. Some wealthy people argue that since they pay most of the taxes, they deserve a bigger voice in American politics. However, wealthy people pay fewer taxes in America than they do in other countries. Also, wealthy people have more control over American elections than almost anyone even though they each have one vote. Wealthy people can give campaign contributions to the candidates of their choice, so the candidates of their choice will have an advantage during the election. Elections are automatically slightly biased in favor of the wealthy on this basis alone. Wealthy people represent a small portion of the population, and the policies that favor lining their pockets further will directly go against the interests of most of the country. More and more wealth has been directed to the wealthy over the past thirty years, and campaign contributions towards certain candidates have had a huge impact on that. The situation involving wealthy people buying elections is reflective of faulty laws in the sense that there could be laws limiting campaign contributions. However, this situation does not directly reflect a problem with the baseline American political process or democratic structure itself. If anything, this problem demonstrates that the American political process is not working as it was intended. Wealthy people who have no political experience and who are acting purely in their own self-interest have more political power than many politicians. The overall system for American voters and the American representative democracy isnt perfectly fair, but having a direct democracy that was perfectly fair would be too difficult. However, the fact that wealthy people are able to subvert the political process and control it so substantially automatically taints the American political process, rendering it unfair even though there are no laws mandating that this should be the case. The disproportionate influence of the wealthy has made the American political process unfair, and not the representative democratic structure.

John Dickinson essays

John Dickinson essays Born in Talbot County, MD., November 8, 1732, John Dickinson had a big effect on the way American History happened. He was born into a relatively wealthy family, his father being first judge to the Court of Pleas in Delaware. He got his education at the Temple in London, studying law. That was the most prestigious education that a student could hope for. John was very lucky as a young man being born into a rich family and getting the best education he could hope for. He was much better off then some of the people he would work for in later years. Not as many people have heard of John Dickinson as they have of George Washington and Benjamin Franklin and that is due to his steadfast opposition to the Americas becoming independent. Dickinson tried to mollify the language and actions of the congress because he was opposed to the separation from Great Britain. He also did not vote for or sign the Declaration of Independence. John Dickinson had a nickname, Penman of the Revolution, he was called this because he wrote many things about the revolution and how he felt about it. Some of the things that he wrote were Letters of a Pennsylvania Farmer, this was a series of essays published by Benjamin Franklin in 1768. These essays were also translated into French and published in Paris. John Dickinson had a big affect on the American Revolution and should be more remembered but, because he opposed the Declaration of Independence the history books dont care about him. ...

Free Essays on The Concept Of Race

The Concept of Race Race- A local geographic or global human population distinguished as a more or less distinct group by genetically transmitted physical characteristics. What in the world does that mean? Every definition is vague, nothing is definite. When I was growing up I never noticed the color of people’s skin until I started Kindergarten. It was something that was taught to me. I have always has black, white, and tan colored skinned friends. As I have grown older I have noticed that there are lines, you can’t walk into a store with someone of a different color with out getting looks. I am white, and a good friend in high school was black. We were friends from the first day I started at Eastside, he was my body guard and I was his little comedian sister. After four years of hanging out, studying, and working together, my friend asked me to date him. I just did not see him as a â€Å"boyfriend† he was my big brother. He claimed that I did not want to date him because he was black. Honestly, it had nothing to do with his skin color. It was not until then that I realized how naà ¯ve I had been about race, how deep race runs in the south. Race is really just a category; it has nothing to do with anything but the color of skin, or the region your ancestors were from hundreds of years ago. Race in the south is the color of your skin. Supposedly, if you are white you think you are too good for the blacks. If you are a light skinned black you are shunned by the dark skinned blacks. Does this make any sense? In a big city, like Atlanta, white people and black people are different than the people in a small town, like Statesboro. The white and black people act differently toward each other. They act differently period. In Atlanta, you have a small group of people running around with rebel flags all over their trucks, and the rest think they are stupid. In Statesboro, a larger group of the white population have the rebel fla... Free Essays on The Concept Of Race Free Essays on The Concept Of Race The Concept of Race Race- A local geographic or global human population distinguished as a more or less distinct group by genetically transmitted physical characteristics. What in the world does that mean? Every definition is vague, nothing is definite. When I was growing up I never noticed the color of people’s skin until I started Kindergarten. It was something that was taught to me. I have always has black, white, and tan colored skinned friends. As I have grown older I have noticed that there are lines, you can’t walk into a store with someone of a different color with out getting looks. I am white, and a good friend in high school was black. We were friends from the first day I started at Eastside, he was my body guard and I was his little comedian sister. After four years of hanging out, studying, and working together, my friend asked me to date him. I just did not see him as a â€Å"boyfriend† he was my big brother. He claimed that I did not want to date him because he was black. Honestly, it had nothing to do with his skin color. It was not until then that I realized how naà ¯ve I had been about race, how deep race runs in the south. Race is really just a category; it has nothing to do with anything but the color of skin, or the region your ancestors were from hundreds of years ago. Race in the south is the color of your skin. Supposedly, if you are white you think you are too good for the blacks. If you are a light skinned black you are shunned by the dark skinned blacks. Does this make any sense? In a big city, like Atlanta, white people and black people are different than the people in a small town, like Statesboro. The white and black people act differently toward each other. They act differently period. In Atlanta, you have a small group of people running around with rebel flags all over their trucks, and the rest think they are stupid. In Statesboro, a larger group of the white population have the rebel fla...

The Black Panther Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Black Panther - Essay Example However, time and events have impacted the American Dream as well as the nature of people that have believed in it. During the last several decades, the transforming nature of the American Dream has demonstrated the development of the American character, which has left many analysts and observes quite mystified, worried and at times utterly annoyed (Blanc, 2003). However, principally the American Dream is said to be deeply ingrained in a utopian conviction relative to the world’s perfectibility, which for all practical purposes could just be present in the eye of the beholder. But in the context of the American psyche, worldly imperfection ought to be removed and rectified by adopting measures through individual and collective actions. American citizens have developed a reputation for reacting quickly, spotting deficiencies and are known to make efforts in finding the right options in order to endeavor to endlessly strive towards achieving perfection. However, critics argue th at the American Dream has remained a myth for working class Blacks in America, at much higher levels as compared to working class whites. A major proportion of the Black population is characterized with suffering from poverty and low pay, which is evident from the fact that a large percentage of Blacks are still classified as poor. Unemployment amongst Blacks is double as compared to whites and they stand twice the number of chances of dying early from diseases and crime at every stage in life. It was in view of these circumstances that the Black Panther Party for Self Defense became very powerful and popular during the 1950s and 1960s and embodied the highest level in terms of the large scale rebellions that swept across the US during this period, against the prevalence of poverty and racism. It can be said that the extent and severity of poverty and racism presently experienced by Blacks in America is not much different from what it was during the 1950s and 1960s. It is also true that the numbers of affluent people amongst Blacks have increased significantly and there is now a Black minority that has also entered the elite class in US society. The ruling parties during the 1950s and 1960s had acted in response to the revolts during the 1950s and 1960s by taking conscious decisions of developing the Black middle classes in order to prevent the revolutionary movement from escalating further. More essentially, the move was to develop a realistic adaptation of the American Dream for Blacks in America. In fact, the Second World War had impacted the civil rights movement in America during this period. The large numbers of Black soldiers who had fought in favor of American imperialist policies were surprised at the hypocrisy surrounding the war propaganda. On the one side American capitalists fought to remove racism practiced by the Nazis and on the other hand there was cruel racism being practiced in their own country. Moreover, the economic prosperity in America implied that larger numbers of Blacks were relocating to cities and becoming part of the working class. By the year 1970, almost 75 percent of the Black population in America was living in cities, and in view of their large majority their confidence

English for Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

English for Business - Essay Example Non-verbal communication can be broadly grouped into two categories that is, nonverbal communications created by the body and nonverbal communications created by other settings like time, space, and silence. The type of the non-verbal communication to be used depend on the situations and the cultural background of the parties involved in communication. In a communication setting, each party should understand the different types of non-verbal signals used and their interpretations so that they understand one another (Lubin, 2011). Non-verbal communication is an important feature of communication especially in a high-context culture (Andrews University, n.d.).   It functions include repeating and emphasizing a verbal message pointing into the one direction while illustrating directions. Moreover, it can be used to accent a verbal message by tone variation that shows the concrete meaning of certain words. In addition, it complements the verbal message and can also contradict according to different cultures. For example, the head node among the Americans and Africans reinforces a positive message, but among the Chinese, it reinforces negative message. Furthermore, a wink contradicts stated affirmative message but reinforces the statement as positive among Chinese. Nonverbal cues also control interactions, for example, they convey when the other party should speak or not speak in a conversation. They can also be used to substitute for the verbal communication especially if an individual has lost voice tone through illness (Lubin, 2011). They can use gestures like finger to lips to show the necessity for silence, facial expressions, for example, a nod to mean yes among Americans. This type of communication is important in intercultural interaction situations and accounts for the distinctive difficulties in communication across cultures. The non-verbal communication among different cultures can be explained in various means of communication without the use of

Aaa Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Aaa - Essay Example Scientific and technological developments are part of our evolution and they do not necessarily intervene. I also do not agree with Dean Burnett’s argument that the convenience brought by technology made us physically weak. For example, Dean Burnett’s argued in his article entitled â€Å"Human evolution: the next stages† that â€Å"An increasingly health-and-safety conscious world where people are prepared to sue for even the most trivial injury means the danger of forceful impact is reducing, and as such rigid and inflexible bones wont be as essential to humans†. It is implied in this argument that modern man is getting weaker because he is used to convenience that evolutionary consequence in order to adapt better to the environment such as having more cartilage to become stronger is not happening. I disagree with this statement because man is in fact getting stronger even without the added cartilages as he suggested. If only Burnett cared to watch sports events such as Olympics where records after records are being broken, he too may change his mind that we are now way stronger than before. Technology did not intervene with our physical development. It enhanced it with better formulation of supplements, better techniques in exercise and training and better understanding on how our body would function better. Taken together, it tremendously improved our evolutionary process that our improvement is become exponential compared to the gradual evolution of

Teachers_ perceptions of the use of technology in teaching language Article

Teachers_ perceptions of the use of technology in teaching language - Article Example First an introduction has been given as to what contribution has technology made in education and especially the teaching of language. Then, teachers’ competencies and barriers to the integration of technology have been discussed. After that, various technological tools and concept are discussed like CALL and ICT, which the teachers can make use of to facilitate their language teaching process. The report is summarized in a concluding paragraph and MLA referencing style has been used properly. Introduction Since the advent of sophisticated technological means, the educators have been trying to modify the instructional process with the help of technology. According to Baker, early 1960’s brought with it â€Å"new curricula, instructional models, and approaches to individualization† (3) of instruction but the drawback with these instructional schemes was their poor management. An ideal classroom environment is so dynamic in which each student presents his own under standing and is comfortable with his own set of instructional materials. Thus, the teacher needs to organize instructional schemes in such a way that all students with their unique calibers are equally attended to. Teachers started feeling the necessity of incorporating information and communication technology in teaching language. According to Kaka, â€Å"Technology (internet) in another side can be the most effective way to increase the student’s knowledge.† Teacher Perception, Competencies and Barriers Kong and Kwok studied teacher perception of the use of information technology in teaching languages in a school in Hong Kong and examined this perception under four domains that included â€Å"teacher perception of their computer training, computer facilities and assistance available, their confidence and comfortability in using computer in daily lessons, and their perception of their roles in using IT in classrooms.† Their survey results supported the idea tha t teacher perception had a positive effect in the usage if teacher-centered technological approaches in the teaching process. They also found that the teachers and the school administration worked in a collaborative environment for the implementation and usage of IT in classrooms especially in language learning. Another similar research has been conducted by Ismail, Ghaleb and Almekhlafi (37) who studied teacher perception teaching Arabic and English languages in schools in UAE. They also found that teachers’ support and willingness to incorporate technology in their teaching languages is very important to obtain positive outcomes. They discussed the benefits of the usage of IT both for the teachers and the students and found from their qualitative and quantitative research that teacher perception should be considered seriously for better implementation of technological tools in classrooms. Hence, as Woodrow (qtd. in Ismail, Ghaleb and Almakhlefi 37) asserts, â€Å"teachers are seen to be active agents in the process of changes and implementation of new ideas as their beliefs and attitudes may support or impede the success of any educational reform such as the utilization of an innovative technology program.† Technological advances have greatly facilitated the language learning. The teachers today can use many technological too

Provide a comprehensive report that will descried the development of Essay

Provide a comprehensive report that will descried the development of design from appraisal to completion and illustrate the prop - Essay Example Client Adviser†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.9 2.4. Project Lead†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.9 2.5. Design Lead†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.9 2.6 Construction Lead†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.9 2.7 Design Brief†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..9-10 3. Design†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.10 3.1. Design Development†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦10 3.2. Types of Designs†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..10 3.2.1. Architectural Design†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..11 3.2.2. Landscape Design†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..12 3.2.3. Structural Design†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦13 3.2.4. Building Services Design†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...14-15 3.3. Concept†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.15-16 3.4. ... Pre-Construction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...18 4.1. Production Information†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..18-19 4.2. Tender Documentation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..19 4.3. Tender Action†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦20 5. Construction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.20 5.1. Mobilization†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦20 5.2. Meetings, Valuation and Inspections†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..21 5.3. Construction to Practical Completion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.21 6. Use (Post Practical Completion)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..22 7. Work Cited†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦23-24 Design Procedures from Appraisal to Completion An architectural design is a collaboration of multiple stages that involves variety of considerations at every step. It’s a piece of art to be built, from the mind to the paper and finally to a physical structure, visible to every eye. The process starts from Appraisal and step by step it completes to the final product. 1. Introduction To integrate structural design and analyze data is an architectural design process according to Tessmann (2008). When a building is to be made a design is thought and then projected, the projection is a process that is as important as the need to make an architectural design. Architecture is

John Lennon and Yoko Ono's campaign for peace Essay

John Lennon and Yoko Ono's campaign for peace - Essay Example The essay "John Lennon and Yoko Ono's campaign for peace" discovers campaign for peace by John Lennon and Yoko Ono. The war was causing great suffering to the women and children. However, the US government was not ready to stop the war anytime soon. However, after the people stood against their own administrators, the political leaders who needed their votes during the next election had to bow down and listen to their concerns. Currently, it’s easier to mobilize people to the streets. This is because the media has advanced tremendously. In addition, there is freedom of expression. Moreover, the entry of the internet in the world has revolutionalized the communication sector. Many people have access to technological gadgets such as phones, tablets, and computers to enable them communicate with other people at ease. On the other hand, social media has increased the connectivity of the people. Therefore, people are able to interact and share ideas without have to move from one pl ace to the other. However, during those times, the media was less developed. As a result, it was hard to mobilize people towards common objectives. As a result, the fact that John Lennon and Yoko Ono were able to convince people towards their ideologies is a clear indication that their campaign was of great success. The military in Vietnam were being blamed for various atrocities. In addition, the war was characterized by torturing of women and violation of other human rights. However, the world was silent as all these acts continued.

Teachers_ perceptions of the use of technology in teaching language Article

Teachers_ perceptions of the use of technology in teaching language - Article Example First an introduction has been given as to what contribution has technology made in education and especially the teaching of language. Then, teachers’ competencies and barriers to the integration of technology have been discussed. After that, various technological tools and concept are discussed like CALL and ICT, which the teachers can make use of to facilitate their language teaching process. The report is summarized in a concluding paragraph and MLA referencing style has been used properly. Introduction Since the advent of sophisticated technological means, the educators have been trying to modify the instructional process with the help of technology. According to Baker, early 1960’s brought with it â€Å"new curricula, instructional models, and approaches to individualization† (3) of instruction but the drawback with these instructional schemes was their poor management. An ideal classroom environment is so dynamic in which each student presents his own under standing and is comfortable with his own set of instructional materials. Thus, the teacher needs to organize instructional schemes in such a way that all students with their unique calibers are equally attended to. Teachers started feeling the necessity of incorporating information and communication technology in teaching language. According to Kaka, â€Å"Technology (internet) in another side can be the most effective way to increase the student’s knowledge.† Teacher Perception, Competencies and Barriers Kong and Kwok studied teacher perception of the use of information technology in teaching languages in a school in Hong Kong and examined this perception under four domains that included â€Å"teacher perception of their computer training, computer facilities and assistance available, their confidence and comfortability in using computer in daily lessons, and their perception of their roles in using IT in classrooms.† Their survey results supported the idea tha t teacher perception had a positive effect in the usage if teacher-centered technological approaches in the teaching process. They also found that the teachers and the school administration worked in a collaborative environment for the implementation and usage of IT in classrooms especially in language learning. Another similar research has been conducted by Ismail, Ghaleb and Almekhlafi (37) who studied teacher perception teaching Arabic and English languages in schools in UAE. They also found that teachers’ support and willingness to incorporate technology in their teaching languages is very important to obtain positive outcomes. They discussed the benefits of the usage of IT both for the teachers and the students and found from their qualitative and quantitative research that teacher perception should be considered seriously for better implementation of technological tools in classrooms. Hence, as Woodrow (qtd. in Ismail, Ghaleb and Almakhlefi 37) asserts, â€Å"teachers are seen to be active agents in the process of changes and implementation of new ideas as their beliefs and attitudes may support or impede the success of any educational reform such as the utilization of an innovative technology program.† Technological advances have greatly facilitated the language learning. The teachers today can use many technological too

John Lennon and Yoko Ono's campaign for peace Essay

John Lennon and Yoko Ono's campaign for peace - Essay Example The essay "John Lennon and Yoko Ono's campaign for peace" discovers campaign for peace by John Lennon and Yoko Ono. The war was causing great suffering to the women and children. However, the US government was not ready to stop the war anytime soon. However, after the people stood against their own administrators, the political leaders who needed their votes during the next election had to bow down and listen to their concerns. Currently, it’s easier to mobilize people to the streets. This is because the media has advanced tremendously. In addition, there is freedom of expression. Moreover, the entry of the internet in the world has revolutionalized the communication sector. Many people have access to technological gadgets such as phones, tablets, and computers to enable them communicate with other people at ease. On the other hand, social media has increased the connectivity of the people. Therefore, people are able to interact and share ideas without have to move from one pl ace to the other. However, during those times, the media was less developed. As a result, it was hard to mobilize people towards common objectives. As a result, the fact that John Lennon and Yoko Ono were able to convince people towards their ideologies is a clear indication that their campaign was of great success. The military in Vietnam were being blamed for various atrocities. In addition, the war was characterized by torturing of women and violation of other human rights. However, the world was silent as all these acts continued.

How Dickens uses language Essay Example for Free

How Dickens uses language Essay There is a variety of repetition in the passage. Phrases like ‘Dead and Buried’ are repeated to remind us, as readers, that most of Pip’s family is dead. The word ‘buried’, suggests that it happened some time ago and that he never knew them, which makes us feel pity and sympathy for the character. Pip talks about his life in the marsh country, where he resided by the river and near the sea. This could possibly highlight how Pip (small like a river), may be connected to something greater than he could’ve ever imagined (like the sea). Dickens also uses some interesting vocabulary, with fascinating imagery in this passage. For example he describes the sea as a ‘distant savage lair’. The word ‘distant’ tells the reader that there is an unknown, oncoming threat. The word ‘savage’ suggests it was over powerful and violent. Finally, the word ‘lair’ implies a dangerous place, where victims are taken to be devoured. This shows the reader that Pip is not safe, and seems to be in grave danger. Alliteration is another technique which Dickens has input in the passage. The phrase ‘low leaden line’, (which describes the river), is a good example of this. Rivers are supposed to be an aquatic blue colour, but Dickens describes it as ‘leaden’, which is a depressing grey colour, suggesting a bleak setting. Finally, Dickens uses third person in the passage, although this is questionable. In one sentence, Pip goes from narrating as an adult in the 1st person and then switches to the 3rd person, where he looks back at himself as a small child. This is because he is in utter disbelief at how lost he was, which is effective as the reader feels confused, just as Pip would have as a small child.

Human African Trypanosomiasis Treatment

Human African Trypanosomiasis Treatment THE synthesis of novel hydrazone compounds to determine the potential anti-parasitic properties and efficacy in the treatment of Human African Trypanosomiasis. ABSTRACT Human African Trypanosomiasis is caused by two sub-species of trypanosome, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei rhodeisense. The protozoan parasite has complex mechanisms to evade immune destruction and hence survives in the host, leading to eventual death without treatment. Treatment such as Suramin and Melarsoprol are limited and have high toxicity, often leading to further complications. Alternative therapies are drastically needed to combat trypanosomal infection, with novel hydrazone compounds currently in development promoting trypanocidal activity. The aims and objectives of this research project include the synthesis of novel hydrazone compounds, with aims of high efficacy and low toxicity, namely against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. This was achieved through a series of reactions, with proton NMR spectra used to confirm the structures of novel hydrazone compounds, and biological screening analysis used to assess the trypanocidal activity in vitro. IC50 valu es were obtained for all hydrazones synthesized, the best results coming from HD1, 9.29 ÂÂ µM, and HD6, 16.18 ÂÂ µM. Overall, the presence of chlorine in the compound typically lowered trypanocidal activity when compared to HD1, which lacked chlorine atoms. Despite other compounds in literature having much lower IC50 values, the results remain promising, demonstrating trypanocidal activity against T. brucei brucei, the infective form of trypanosome that affects animals. Trypanocidal activity against Trypanosoma brucei brucei suggests potential activity against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, signifying the IC50 values obtained from novel hydrazones. Furthermore, the biological properties of hydrazone structures demonstrate the potential to develop additional analogues and derivatives, which could contribute to combatting Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense infection. Likewise, alternative therapies that can cross the blood-brain-barrier are another interest regarding research i n the field. Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense proceeds rapidly once an individual has been exposed to the parasite, with severe side effects and high mortality rates. This reinforces the need for better and more effective treatment and management of the disease. Key words: Trypanosomiasis, Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, hydrazone, Suramin, Melarsoprol, proton NMR, IC50 values 1.1. Background of Human African Trypanosomiasis Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT), or African sleeping sickness, is a disease affecting a large proportion of Africa, with a suspected 60 million people at risk (Kennedy, 2013).It is caused by two subspecies of trypanosome, a unicellular and flagellated protozoan parasite, with Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (T.b.r) causing East- African sleeping sickness, and Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (T.b.g) causing West-African sleeping sickness. West African sleeping sickness is much more prevalent in terms of the whole continent, with 6228 cases reported in 2013. Incidence has decreased massively since 2000, with 25,865 reported cases, although this figure is suspected to be higher due to unreported disease incidence. It is the causative sub-species in 98% of cases. The other 2% of cases are classified as East-African sleeping sickness, with 86 cases reported in 2013, approximately 88% lower than in 2000 (709 cases reported) (Franco et al., 2014). Despite the low incidence of T.b.r infectio n, symptoms are severe and death occurs in almost all patients without treatment. Treatment for suchinfections are limited and have high toxicity, signifying the need for development. Transmission of the protozoan parasite is via the vector, the tsetse fly. Infections with T.b.r proceed rapidly, with entry of infectious metacyclic trypomastigotes into the human bloodstream, lymphatic system and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) following the initial bite, where proliferation occurs. The tsetse fly ingests a blood meal from an infected animal, with cattle and ungulates acting as reservoirs (Palmer Wells, 2012), and hence ingests trypomastigotes. Various cell divisions and binary fission occur in the mid-gut of the fly to form procyclic trypomastigotes, and conformational changes occur to allow the trypomastigotes to bind to the salivary epithelia. Once attached, the parasite can once again replicate via asymmetric division (Pepin, 2014) to form metacyclic trypanosomes. It is in this way that a person becomes infected with T.b.r (Langousis Hill, 2014). 1.2. Immunology The causative parasite manifests in hosts due to the evasion of the immune system through antigenic variation, delaying the immune response and therefore allowing the parasite to complete its complex lifecycle (Stijlemans et al., 2016). The parasite expresses variant surface glycoproteins (VSGs) on its cell membrane via a glycophosphatidylinositol anchor to serve as a protective barrier. While the immune response induces antibody development against the VSG being expressed, the parasite can switch VSG due to the large amount of VSG genes the genome possesses. This causes new antibodies to form against the newly expressed VSG, and the parasite continues to change VSGs to avoid destruction. Furthermore, the parasites alter their energy metabolism and internal structure, presenting further issues for the immune system (Stijlemans et al., 2016). T.b.r. is resistant to human trypanosome lytic factors (TLFs) containing apolipoprotein L1 (ApoL1), and this is due to the existence of the seru m resistance protein (SRP) coded for by the SRA gene. This binds to TLF-1 and therefore prevents ApoL1-mediated lysis of the infected parasitic cells (Kennedy, 2013; Bart et al., 2015). Kato et al. noted the upregulation of certain cytokines following T.b.r infection, namely IFN-ÃŽÂ ³, IL-10, IL-6 and TGF-ÃŽÂ ² (Kato et al. 2015). Furthermore, these cytokines may play a key role in the inflammatory immune response. IL-6 and IL-10 were upregulated upon CSF examination of late stage patients, and those with CSF trypanosomes had higher levels of WBCs, positively correlating with IL-6 CSF levels. Despite this, no significant changes in levels of cytokines at different stages in HAT were noted. Both subspecies of trypanosome cause non-specific inflammatory responses, resulting in non-specific symptoms. This demonstrates the difficulty in diagnosis and staging of T.b.r infection, and therefore poses a hindrance in regards to timely treatment (Lamour et al. 2015). 1.3. Symptoms Symptoms, typically manifesting 1-3 weeks after bite, include myalgia, hyperplasia of the lymph nodes and spleen, and weight loss in the haemolymphatic stage, and there is clear central nervous system (CNS) involvement in later stages (Pepin, 2014; Kennedy, 2013). It is in this meningoencephalitic stage where patients often exhibit behavioural and motor disturbances including tremors, speech complications, anxiety, confusion, personality changes and others. Further complications may manifest, including ocular difficulties, acute renal failure, multi-organ failure and chronic lymphocytic meningoencephalitis. Death is highly likely to occur in those who do not receive treatment. Trypanosoma brucei produces an aromatic compound called tryptophol, and this induces sleep in humans. Other complications with sleep include irregular patterns of sleep or interrupted sleep, insomnia during the night and sleepiness during the daytime. 1.4. Current problem Current pharmaceutical treatment including intravenous Suramin or Melarsoprol is ineffective and potentially toxic, with patients suffering with neurological dysfunction and post- treatment reactive encephalopathy. Co-administration with eflornithine and nifurtimox has been used to treat T.b.r infection also, but remains somewhat ineffective. Suramin is provided intravenously as the first line treatment for the haemolymphatic stage of T.b.r infection, however this treatment can lead to side effects such as renal failure, peripheral neuropathy and anaphylactic shock, amongst others. It acts by binding to enzymes in the glycosome and disrupts glycolysis within the trypanosome (Babokhov et al., 2013). Should the parasite cross the blood-brain barrier in the later stages of the disease, the treatment options are toxic and limited to the arsenic compound, Melarsoprol, which acts by disrupting trypanosomal redox mechanisms. Treatment with this can lead to further complications such as post-treatment reactive encephalopathy seen in 10% of patients (Palmer Wells, 2012), subsequently causing comas, seizures and cerebral oedema for example. Co-administration of eflornithine with nifurtimox, a hydrazone of 5-nitro-2-furaldehyde, has been shown to demonstrate trypanocidal activity, and is routinely used to treat T.b.g. It has shown trypanocidal activity against T.b.b in mice, however has been relatively ineffective against T.b.r. Furthermore, although eflourthrine abides Lipinskis rule of five in theory, in practice it is a highly hydrophobic compound, and is therefore unlikely to cross inner membranes once administered (Gilbert, 2014). It is therefore administered intravenously. Due to there being no self-cure for T.b.r, treatment is required for a recovery to be made. Furthermore, many of the drugs developed are only applicable to bloodstream trypomastigotes, rather than those that have crossed the blood-brain barrier (Palmer Wells, 2012). Factors such as this demonstrate the problematic nature of the disease, as well as the need for alternative therapies to combat the infection. 1.5. Current research Currently, novel treatments are in development with the hope that toxicity is reduced and efficacy is increased against trypanosomal parasites, namely T.b.r and T.b.b. To determine whether a proposed therapeutic compound is likely to be membrane permeable and therefore orally bioavailable, the Lipinskis rule of 5 is applied. To be within the limits of the rule means that the compound is orally bioavailable and easily absorbed by the body (Leeson, P. 2012). The rules state that the molecular weight of the compound must be less than 500 Daltons, the lipophilicity value is less than 5, represented as a LogP value, the number of hydrogen bond acceptors must be less than 10, and the number of hydrogen donators must be less than 5. Hydrogen bond acceptors include highly electronegative atoms not bound to a hydrogen atom and with free electrons on its outer shell, including oxygen and nitrogen. In newer literature, fluorine may be considered and counted as a hydrogen acceptor. This contrasts with a hydrogen bond donor, any atom that donates a hydrogen atom that it is bound to break or form a bond. All novel compounds are assessed under these rules to dete rmine properties involved in pharmacokinetics (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion). Oral administration is non-invasive, more bioavailable and simpler for patient use, all of which is desirable for a new treatment for T.b.r infection. Furthermore, a compound designed may still be orally bioavailable if a single rule is not adhered to. Benzoxaborole compounds have recently been suggested as a new, novel treatment for Trypanosoma brucei (T.b.r and T.b.g) in vitro, namely SCYX-7158 oxaborole(Jacobs et al., 2011). The orally-active treatment is suggested to have high efficacy for both acute and chronic stages of the disease due to the treatment being permeable to the CNS, and properties such as distribution, metabolism, elimination, absorption and toxicology are apparent in vitro. A viability assay combined different whole cell T. brucei spp.and the novel compound to gain positive results of anti-parasitic activity. This treatment demonstrated concentration-dependency, and most trypanocidal activity came from the first 8 hours of a 24-hour exposure. Furthermore, the irreversibility of trypanocidal activity was noted during a short exposure. In vivo, SCYX-7158 was examined against an infection with T.b.b to monitor passage across the blood-brain barrier, with mice models providing an 80% cure rate over a 7 day-treatmen t. Benzoxaboroles, like hydrazones, have demonstrated anti-cancer, anti-fungal, anti- bacterial, anti-viral, anti-inflammatory and anti-parasitic properties with a low intrinsic toxicity similar to table salt when decomposed (Liu et al., 2014). This is due to the metabolites of benzoxaboroles being found to be boric acid and oxidative deboronation products, both with very low toxicity. Per Lipinskis law, it is an orally bioavailable drug with very low IC50 values ranging from 0.19 to 1.008 ÂÂ µM, demonstrating high trypanocidal activity in vitro. An IC50 value is value is the inhibitory concentration value at which 50% inhibition of target cells has occurred. It is important when comparing the difference in the potency of compounds. A higher value represents less efficacy, with smaller values representing good trypanocidal activity in this case. It is a pharmacokinetic parameter, measuring the relationship between drug target and drug. Other research at the forefront include the development of hydrazone compounds of 5-nitro-2-furaldehyde and adamantine alkanohydrazine (Foscolos et al., 2016). Adamantine and derivatives have been previously shown to have trypanocidal activity, increasing for the more hydrophobic, phenyl and cyclohexyl substituents. These compounds and derivatives demonstrated good trypanocidal activity, approximately 20 times greater than nifurtimox. The lowest IC50 value obtained was 0.386 ÂÂ µM. Following the same study, it was found that in the absence of the nitro group, no trypanocidal activity was demonstrated, highlighting the trypanosomal nitro reductase mechanism these novel compounds work by. In terms of the structure-activity relationship, it was seen that the selectivity of compounds against T. brucei species increased when the distance between the carbonyl group and the adamantine skeleton was increased, with derivatives containing 3-cyclopentyl and 3-phenyl being more biologically active than other compounds. In conjunction, the lipophilicity and conformational structure contributed to the efficacy of these novel compounds, with increased lipophilicity and conformational flexibility promoting trypanocidal activity. 1.6. Aims of research Better pharmaceutical treatments with high efficacy and less lethal side-effects are drastically needed for T.b.r infection. Current research demonstrates the potential use of hydrazone compounds and derivatives in combatting parasitic infections, amongst others. Guidance from project supervisor Dr A Bhambra was given throughout the project regarding the structures of compounds. Hydrazones are defined as having the structure R1R2C = NNH2, the N=H bond is conjugated with a lone pair of electrons on the functional nitrogen atom (Verma et al. 2014). Research suggests hydrazone compounds also demonstrate anticancer, anti-inflammatory and anti-HIV properties, signifying biological variety and the potential to treat other diseases (Verma et al., 2014). It is because of these properties that new hydrazone compounds are in development, with the aim of synthesising novel compounds which demonstrate similar properties when applied against Trypanosoma brucei infection, and hence a potential the rapeutic for T.b.r. 2.1. Chemistry/ experimental synthesis The synthesis of four novel hydrazone compounds of reactants A-D and Pentafluorophenyl hydrazine (PFH) (Figure 3) was performed. All solvents and reactants were commercially available. Reflux condensation reactions with relevant reactant (3 mmol) and PFH (3 mmol) were performed, with continuous heating (oil bath) and stirring of compounds at 100-150 ÂÂ °C approximately. Compounds were separated with ethyl acetate (60 ml) and distilled water (50 ml). Excess magnesium sulphate was added to remove any excess water and products were vacuum filtered. Recrystallization reactions with boiling ethanol (10 ml approximately) not in excess were performed, and compounds were vacuumed down to give final compounds. Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) analysis was performed for all compounds throughout the stages of experiment to monitor the constituents of the final product. Prior to NMR analysis, compounds were dissolved in chloroform (800 ÂÂ µL) with exception of HD6 (with reactant D), dis solved in DMSO (400 ÂÂ µL). 2.2. Biological Screening Analysis Further viability tests were carried out to assess the trypanocidal activity of each compound. Compounds were sent to the London School of Tropical Medicine for biological screening analysis against T.b.b. Stock drug solutions were prepared in DMSO at 20 mg/ml and further diluted appropriately. All assays were performed with use of 96-well microtiter plates, each well containing 100 ÂÂ µL of parasite culture, and serial dilutions of the compound in triplicate. Wells were incubated at 37ÂÂ °C for 72 hrs in 5% CO2. Control wells contained no compound, and blanks consisted of medium only. Following this, the MIC was determined and assurance of growth in control wells. 20 ÂÂ µL of Alamar Blue was added to wells, and plates were incubated for 2-4 hrs more. Plates were read on Gemini Plate Reader with an excitation wavelength of 530 nm and emission wavelength of 580 nm. Following this, IC50 values were obtained. Four novel hydrazone compounds were synthesised, shown in table 1. The electrophilic carbonyl group of appropriate reactants A-D reacted with the nucleophilic nitrogen (hydrazine portion) of PFH by nucleophilic addition. IC50 values gained demonstrated potential, especially HD1 and HD6. Proton NMR analytical results from spectra obtained are demonstrated below, showing the amount of hydrogens (or protons) in each compound as well as their corresponding intensities. Throughout synthesis, TLC was performed for each compound to visualize the two reactants, the formed product and any other substance that may be present. Rf values and appropriate TLC analysis results are illustrated in alongside compounds in table 1. 3.1. HD1 Beige crystals (50% yield); ÃŽÂ ´H (CDCl3) 7.28 (1H, s), 7.32-7.42 (3H, m), 7.64 (2H, dd), 7.82 (1H, s). 3.2. HD4 Pink crystals (50% yield) ÃŽÂ ´H (CDCl3) 7.30 (2H, s), 7.35 (1H, s), 7.45-7.50 (1H, m), 7.62 (1H, s), 7.73 (1H, s). 3.3. HD5 Beige crystals (H (CDCl3) 7.32-7.38 (3H, s), 7.54-7.60 (2H, d), 7.78 (1H, m). 3.4. HD6 Red crystals (H (CDCl3) 7.37 (1H, s), 7.45 (2H, s), 7.70 (2H, s). 3.5. Biological screening analysis Results obtained from the London School of Tropical Medicine included IC50 values for all hydrazones synthesised. These are listed alongside appropriate compounds in table 1. HD1 had an IC50 value of 9.29 ÂÂ µM; HD4 34.37 ÂÂ µM; HD5 34.09 ÂÂ µM and HD6 16.18 ÂÂ µM. Formation of all compounds HD1, HD4, HD5 and HD6 (table 1) followed the general mechanism illustrated in appendix 1. R1 should be substituted with relevant reactant (A-D) benzene rings. Electrophilic reactants accept free pairs of electrons from the nucleophilic nitrogen atom of PFH by nucleophilic addition. The formation of a biologically active centre was documented (Verma, 2014). All compounds synthesised contain phenyl groups, which has been suggested in literature to promote trypanocidal activity (Foscolos et al., 2016). Hydrazones synthesised are also non-polar and hydrophobic compounds, meaning that they carry no net charge and are not soluble in water. Furthermore, an increase in hydrophobicity also promotes trypanocidal activity, however has been suggested to make the compound less bioavailable (Gilbert et al., 2014). Proton NMR spectra demonstrate relative intensities in parts per million (ppm) of protons or hydrogens in the compound. Despite only hydrogens being of interest, it is important to consider the other electronegative groups that exist within the compound such as phenyl groups or -OH groups, which produce different peaks. The solvent peak demonstrates as a sharp, well distinguished peak to exclude it from the compound results. Singlet, doublet and Name Reactant Structure IC50 value (ÂÂ µM) TLC (illustrated- not to scale) Rf value (cm) HD1 Benzaldehyde (reactant A) 9.29 0.73 HD4 3-chlorobenzaldehyde (reactant B) 34.37 0.48 HD5 4-chlorobenzaldehyde (reactant C) 34.09 0.43 HD6 3,4-dichlorobenzaldehyde (reactant D) 16.42 0.57 multiplet peaks were all demonstrated on the spectra. NMR analysis reflects the structures synthesised, confirming the number and positioning of hydrogens. The spectra observed demonstrated some sharp peaks and others more broad. Furthermore, some peaks were somewhat distorted due to the presence of chlorine on the aromatic benzene ring. Limitations of the experimental synthesis included low yields obtained from synthesised hydrazones. This could have been possibly due to the recrystallization step or some of the reactants not converting into product. Factors such as this could have been improved to gain better results. In addition, yields were estimated due to not weighing compounds beforehand, therefore weighing the compounds when they were initially synthesised would improve the data. 4.1. HD1 From the NMR spectra, HD1 contained 7 hydrogen atoms, one at 7.28 ppm as a singlet peak, three at 7.32 7.42 ppm as a mutliplet peak, two at 7.64 ppm as a doublet peak and one hydrogen at 7.82 ppm as a singlet peak. All novel compounds synthesised differ in terms of the aromatic benzene ring on the relevant reactants, therefore the positioning and amount of chlorine attached to this aromatic ring demonstrates the difference in IC50 values. This coincides with the biological activity against T.b.b. HD1 is formed of benzaldehyde and PFH, and therefore does not possess any chlorine atoms. The IC50 values were the lowest for HD1 at 9.29ÂÂ µM, which suggests that the presence of chlorine in the compound may decrease trypanocidal activity. 4.2. HD4 HD4 contained six hydrogen atoms, two at 7.30 ppm as a singlet peak, one hydrogen at 7.35 ppm as a singlet peak, one hydrogen at 7.45-7.50 ppm as a multiplet peak and a one hydrogen as a singlet peak at 7.73 ppm. HD4 contained a chlorine group on the 3rd carbon of the reactant benzene ring, with displacement of chlorine by (bio)nucleophiles, facilitated by the electrophilic carbon centre determining biological properties observed. However, it has been suggested that the presence of a chlorine atom at a non-reactive aromatic double bond diminishes reactivity (Naumann, 2003). The IC50 value for HD4 was 34.37 ÂÂ µM, the highest value from all the compounds synthesised. This supports the notion that chlorine atoms present in the compound reduces trypanocidal activity rather than improving it. 4.3. HD5 HD5 also contained six hydrogens, with three hydrogens at 7.32 7.38 ppm in a singlet peak, 2 hydrogens at 7.54 7.60 ppm in a doublet peak, and one hydrogen at 7.78 ppm in a multiplet peak. HD5 also contained a chlorine atom but on the forth carbon of the benzene ring, as opposed to the third. Altering the position of the chlorine atom did allow for an improved IC50 value to be obtained, which was 34.09 ÂÂ µM. This however remains much less effective than HD1. 4.4. HD6 HD6 contained five hydrogen atoms, one at 7.37 ppm as a singlet peak, one at 7.35 ppm as a singlet peak, two at 7.45 ppm in a singlet peak, and 2 hydrogens at 7.70 ppm in a singlet peak. Despite the presence of chlorine in both HD4 and HD5 causing less effective activity against T.b.b, HD6 contained two chlorine atoms attached to the benzene ring, and the IC50 value obtained was nearly half that of HD4 and HD5 at 16.18 ÂÂ µM. This suggests that the presence of one chlorine atom existing at any carbon on the benzene ring does not promote trypanocidal activity, however the presence of 2 attached chlorine atoms did aid activity. 4.5. Oral bioavailability Per Lipinskis rule of 5, all novel compounds fall within the laws except from HD1, which contains 6 hydrogen bond donors. HD1 therefore would be more bioavailable if administered intravenously, however may still be orally bioavailable as only one rule has been violated, with the rest all being adhered to. Despite this, the other novel compounds alone demonstrate progression in seeking an orally bioavailable treatment for HAT, linked with reducing toxicity amongst being easier and more accessible for those who require it. Furthermore, the use of PFH incorporates many fluorine atoms, which increases lipophilicity (Citation), increasing activity in vivo, as well as increasing fat solubility and therefore allowing the compounds to easily pass through membranes in the body. Retaining fluorine is a desirable property due to the improvement of metabolic stability as a result of the high strength C-F bond. It is a relatively small molecule, with a high electronegativity value. All properties such as this contribute to biological responses within the body. 4.6. Comparison to literature IC50 values HD1 and HD6 demonstrated the most promising results of 9.29 and 16.18 ÂÂ µM. For comparison intentions, alternative novel therapies at the forefront of science such as adamantine alkanohydrazine hydrazones and benzoxaborole SCYX-7158 have IC50 values of 0.386ÂÂ µM and 0.19 to 1.008ÂÂ µM respectively (Foscolos et al., 2016; Jacobs et al., 2011). Although the results from the synthesised compounds are promising and suggest trypanocidal activity against Trypanosoma brucei, both SCYX-7158 and the adamantine alkanohydrazine hydrazones have much lower IC50 values, suggesting that the structures of novel compounds could be improved and altered to gain better trypanocidal activity. Furthermore, current treatment Melarsoprol and Suramin have IC50 values of 0.046 and 0.004-0.009 ÂÂ µM, much lower than the compounds synthesised (Torreele et al., 2010). However, as stated above, these treatments offer high toxicity and high mortality rates following administration, and the fa ct that the novel compounds synthesised (HD1 especially) have low IC50 values remains promising. Furthermore, both Suramin and Melarsoprol are administered intravenously, posing more problems in terms of accessibility as developing countries where the disease is endemic possibly do not possess the facilities to administer treatment. This is unlike the synthesised hydrazone compounds, which all theoretically can be administered orally, therefore moving towards better treatment and management of T.b.r infection. HD4 and HD5 demonstrate lower trypanocidal activity than HD1 and HD6, therefore further progression on HD1 especially would allow for potentially more effective trypanocidal compounds, represented by lower IC50 values upon testing. Furthermore, new compounds in other literature with the highest trypanocidal activity, namely 5-nitro-2-furaldehyde and adamantine alkanohydrazine hydrazones and benzoxaboroles, provide a platform for future work and development of structural analogues of hydrazones to promote trypanocidal activity. To confirm that the novel compounds synthesised are in fact effective against T.b.r, further testing is required in a controlled level 3 laboratory where the p

Free Great Gatsby Essays: Reflection of an Era :: Great Gatsby Essays

The Great Gatsby - Reflection of an Era During the 1920's America was a country of great ambition, despair and disappointment. The novel The Great Gatsby is a reflection of this decade, it illustrates the burning passion one man has toward his "American Dream" and the different aspects of the dream. Fitzgerald's work is a reflection of America during his lifetime. The Great Gatsby shows the ambition of one man's reach for his "American Dream," the disappointment of losing this dream and the despair of his loss. In the 1920's the spirit and ambition of the American people soared.   Unlike their European counterparts who were trapped in the social class to which they were born, the American people knew that if they worked hard then they could rise to a higher social class. The flappers and the women's liberation movement were just two examples of how Americans expressed their newly discovered social freedom.   It seemed that nothing was impossible to achieve. James Gatz, shared the spirit and ambition on the American people and fought long and hard to earn his place in the world. He had dreamed of transforming himself from the poor, young man that he was into the wealthy celebrity that he would soon become. Gatsby, as a child, had a daily schedule that he followed. He knew from childhood that he had to work for his fame. "Jimmy was bound to get ahead. He always had some resolves like this or something" (175). Gatsby's ambition lay not only in his future, but as he grew older it would be found in his love. He had an obsession with Daisy Buchanan and tried everything in his power to bring things back to they way they used to be when they first met. He thought he could relive the past. He threw lavish parties to get her attention. He did everything in his power to be near her. " ‘Gatsby bought that house so that Daisy would be just across the bay' " (79) He earned his wealth so that they could finally be together. Like Gatsby, the American people of the 1920's followed their hearts, and their ambition. Through World War One, American men fought to save their country and woman fought to win the right to vote. Even in fashion women were liberated, as the hemline on an average skirt was raised.